Social Stratification In China Research Articles

Is shadow education a myth? How schools affect private tutoring in China

Shadow education, known as private tutoring, is expanding rapidly worldwide. While mainstream studies explain shadow education from a family-centered perspective, this study focuses on the role of the school. Using data from the China Panel Education Survey, this study discerns that active communications between schools and families can elicit private tutoring involvement. The school-initiated communications yield more positive and significant effects when schools impose heightened assessment pressure on teachers, suggesting an inextricable linkage between shadow education and formal schooling. The school effect is also more pronounced for economically disadvantaged families. These findings provide important insights for understanding how schools shape social stratification in China.

Unequal parenting in China: A study of socio-cultural and political effects

This study examines the parental socio-cultural and political effects on parenting practices in China. Based on the China Education Panel Survey, we construct a new typology of parenting styles – intensive, permissive, authoritarian and neglectful – and focus on intensive parenting as a particular mode in which the more privileged families in China use superior cultural and political resources to reinforce their advantages. We show that parents in higher class positions, with higher education and with membership in the leading Chinese Communist Party (CCP) tend to adopt intensive parenting as a means of securing all-round development and obtaining favourable academic achievement for their children. Parenting styles thus reflect a more complicated feature of social stratification in China than in Western societies.

Secondary Education and Class Stratification: Understanding the Hierarchy of Sexuality Education in a Chinese Vocational High School.

The discussion of sexuality education has a long history in China since the onset of modernisation in the early 20th century. Sexuality education has also existed in China’s educational system for a long time but in various forms. However, the discussions regarding students’ experiences and the influence of social stratification in China’s particular social context are still limited. From March to September 2019, the author visited an academic high school (pugao) and a vocational high school (zhigao) in Tianjin, China, to gain first-hand data to understand young people’s sexuality education experiences. In this paper, the author specifically paid attention to China’s social class, a rarely discussed topic in China’s society. She also tried to listen to the voices of young people and schoolteachers and help them to be heard. By presenting the insights from schoolteachers, students, as well as the materials from a nationally approved textbook, the author conducted a thematic analysis about how social class influences young people’s sexuality education experiences in secondary education in China.

Private supplementary education and Chinese adolescents' development: The moderating effects of family socioeconomic status.

Using the data from the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS), this study estimated the effects of two types of private supplementary education, namely, cram school and hobby class, on the development of Chinese junior high school students and the moderating effects of family socioeconomic status (SES). First, we found that cram schools and hobby classes both positively correlate with some dimensions of adolescents' development while negatively correlating with others. Attending cram schools is positively associated with students' academic achievement but negatively related to their noncognitive skills. Participating in hobby classes is positively associated with noncognitive abilities but negatively related to cognitive abilities. Second, the negative correlations between cram schools and noncognitive abilities and between hobby classes and cognitive abilities are stronger for low-SES students than their affluent counterparts. The current study's findings shed new light on the role of private supplementary education in educational inequality and social stratification in China.

Competing for privilege –aspirational youth at a Chinese high school entrepreneurship competition

The recent expansion of the overseas education market in China has led to the rise of “Background Promotion Projects” designed to strengthen the applications of elite university aspirants. Based on ethnographic findings of a particular Background Promotion Project, a Chinese high school entrepreneurship competition, this study analyses how international applicants to elite Western universities learn “the art of aspiration” by constructing and performing entrepreneurial subjectivities. Building a link between Arjun Appadurai’s concept of “the capacity to aspire” and Elizabeth Currid-Halkett’s theory of “the aspirational class”, this study reveals how deepening social stratification in China and the rise of a global meritocracy reinforce each other. Demonstrating how privilege is consolidated and justified through the (re)production of aspirations, this study further contributes to the theorisation of class reproduction and education during a time of post-industrial change and international mobility.

Social stratification and housing wealth inequality in transitional urban China

ABSTRACT As the Chinese economy continues to transform, housing wealth has gradually become the single largest asset in most urban households. At the same time, housing wealth inequality has worsened, and housing stratification has become a major form of social stratification in the country. However, there is no empirical evidence of temporal changes in housing wealth inequality and their implications on social stratification. Pooling three waves of survey data from the 1995, 2008, and 2013 iterations of the Chinese Household Income Project, we present a dynamic image of housing wealth inequality in urban China. The results suggest that housing wealth inequality decreased initially and increased later. To further illustrate how housing wealth is stratified by social groups, we conducted regression analyses and structural tests, which revealed three main results: the education level of the household head has an increasingly positive impact on housing wealth inequality; a household head with superior occupational status generally has an advantage in terms of possession of housing wealth with no evidence that this advantage diminishes during the transitional period; and income has a significant, positive impact on housing wealth, and this effect exhibited an increasing trend over time. These results imply that the temporal changes in housing wealth inequality exacerbated the social stratification in transitional urban China. Highlights This study explores the temporal changes of housing wealth inequality in urban China. Housing inequality decreased and then increased during the transitional period. Both education and income have increasingly positive impacts on the housing inequality. The advantages of the superior occupational status haven’t diminished. These temporal changes exacerbated the social stratification in China.

Inequality and Social Stratification in Postsocialist China

This article reviews research on inequality and social stratification in China since the mid-1990s. Going beyond the theoretical framework of the market transition debate, research in the field has been advanced by paying more attention to the roles of the institutions of Chinese state socialism, such as the household registration ( hukou) and urban work unit ( danwei) systems, and workers’ self-selective mobility. Empirical studies have benefited from the systematic collection of well-designed and high-quality survey data and from the application of advanced statistical methods. Substantive analysis has been extended to new themes related to social class, gender, ethnicity, education, and housing wealth. This review concludes by seeking to identify the wider implications of empirical findings from China for comparative research on inequality and social stratification and by providing some suggestions for the future direction of the field.

Book Review: Yingjie Guo (ed.), Handbook on Class and Social Stratification in China

Book Review: Yingjie Guo (ed.), <i>Handbook on Class and Social Stratification in China</i>

Household registration, urban status attainment, and social stratification in China

Previous studies on the household registration system (hukou) have focused either on the selective process of hukou conversion to urban status and its impact on social stratification or on the socioeconomic disadvantages and the assimilation of rural migrant workers in cities. Pooling the data from two national probability surveys in China (CGSS 2003 and 2008), we investigate socioeconomic inequality in urban labor markets and the role played by successful and unsuccessful conversion to urban hukou status for those of rural origins. Specifically, we compare the earnings of three subgroups: those who acquired urban status through their own efforts, those who gained their urban hukou via the incorporation of their villages into cities, and rural migrants who have not obtained an urban hukou. Linear regression results show that the commonly observed earnings premium associated with urban hukou status is limited only to a subgroup of rural-origin people who obtained their urban hukou through a highly selective process. Propensity-score matching analyses further reveal that the effect of urban hukou status on earnings is positively associated with the propensity of hukou conversion to urban status, and that the urban hukou only pays off among people with better education and higher-status occupations within the state sector. These findings shed new light on the relationship between mobility processes and stratification outcomes, and bear important policy implications for the ongoing reform of the hukou system in the process of China’s urbanization.

Book review: Class and social stratification in China

Book review: Class and social stratification in China

Middle Class China: Dreams and Aspirations

An important part of the China Dream is the development of a comfortable middle class lifestyle for all. This is not such a surprising development since a public discourse surrounding the emergence of a middle class has been in the making for over a decade. There is though nonetheless an apparent paradox in a Communist Party embracing the middle class. Understanding how and why this has occurred, as well as attempting to identify the consequences for social stratification in China is clearly important. While it would seem reasonable to attempt to analyse China’s middle class in terms of wealth, or occupation or even lifestyle, it is argued that this is fairly meaningless: in this context the middle class is more a discourse than social structure.

Aging, Living Arrangements, and Housing in China

Grounded in a literature review, current living arrangements and housing conditions of the elderly in China are investigated with new empirical evidence. Survey data of September 2009 included a total of 692 Chinese households with a focus on elderly members. Major findings are: (1) living arrangements of the Chinese elderly were diverse, but the majority were living independently, or in “empty nests,” with 67.8% of the respondents not living with their adult children; (2) housing and community facilities for the elderly were inadequate (especially those serving the disabled); (3) no significant group difference was found in the utilization of public facilities by the elderly; (4) the workplace (Danwei) was no longer a dominant source of housing assistance; and (5) housing conditions and property rights as part of the social stratification in China reflected different occupational statuses before retirement.

International student migration and social stratification in China

Abstract During the late 1990s China moved from a period of “wealth creation” that benefited the majority of the population to a period of “wealth concentration” that benefited a minority. This essay focuses on the role of international student migration from China to other countries in this process. In particular the authors delineate how different types of capital – the human, social, political and cultural (specifically foreign degrees) – transform into each other. In the process the analysis considers how the conversions among these different types of capital have intensified and have become concentrated in the top stratum of society. The essay links the international education to general patterns of social transformation currently occurring in China. Specifically the discussion brings in a transnational dimension to the examination of social stratification in contemporary China.

Subject and Subject: English Teaching and Learning in China

This article examines the influence of English on China, especially on Chinese English learners. What role has English played in China? Who decides the way it is structured? In what way has it affected Chinese society, especially schools? And how can educators face the cultural dilemmas it brings? Presenting the historical and contemporary position of English in China, the author argues that English has played a unique role in reinforcing the social stratification in China. English has never been just a subject or discipline in Chinese schools, but the Chinese must become aware of the danger of being the subject of its power.

Emigration, Housing Conditions, and Social Stratification in China

Using data from the 1995 China 1% Population Sample Survey, this article examines the impact of international migration on housing conditions in China. We find that international migration affects housing conditions differently in cities, towns, and rural areas. In rural areas, the impact of emigration on housing conditions is seen primarily through the increase of housing space, whereas in cities the impact of emigration on housing conditions is mainly reflected in the improvement of facilities. Although having a cadre in the household continues to be an important factor, international migration has begun to challenge, and even rival, this legacy of social stratification in China.

The household registration system and social stratification in China: 1955-1996.

The Chinese household registration system (hukou), which divides the population into "agricultural" and "nonagricultural" sectors, may be the most important determinant of differential privileges in state socialist China, determining access to good jobs, education for one's children, housing, health care, and even the right to move to a city. Transforming one's hukou status from rural to urban is a central aspect of upward social mobility. Using data from a 1996 national probability sample, we show that education and membership in the Chinese Communist Party are the main determinants of such mobility.

Rural Labor Flows in China (review)

Reviewed by: Rural Labor Flows in China Young-Jin Choi (bio) Loraine A. West and Yaohui Zhao, editors. Rural Labor Flows in China. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 2000. 322 pp. Paperback $20.00, ISBN 1-55729-067-9. The Chinese media have presented a negative image of rural migrants as aimlessly or blindly moving to cities (mengliu). At the same time, restrictions have tightened as migration has increased. Nonetheless, in the mid-1990s, local governments started to loosen their control over migration as they realized that it would not work. This edited book aims to help readers better understand who rural Chinese migrants are, how they migrate, and how migration effects their home places and destinations. It is based mainly on rural household survey data from Liaoning, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Guangdong, and Sichuan. In this collection, various authors examine the characteristics of migrants at the individual, household, and community levels. Xiaodong Ma finds that migrants with high levels of education and job experience are able to get more desirable and higher-paying jobs. Hein Mallee argues that people who come from household situations in which the land-per-worker allocation is smaller than the village mean are more likely to migrate and have a well-informed network based on family and village ties. With good transportation facilities and closeness to urban centers, members of a household usually choose nonfarming (Township and Village Enterprises) or diversified production opportunities. Shukai Zhao shows that migration is more likely when rural nonfarm employment is not available. Informal organizations or networks facilitate peasant migration as well as urban employment. Zhao finds that networks in the place of origin (village), in particular kinship networks, later lead to networks established in urban areas. These are extremely important for migrants seeking employment. Networking [End Page 578] leads to segmentation of the labor force within a village, according to Ma. While locals (insiders) are assigned higher-skilled and better-paying jobs, nonlocals (outsiders) are given lower-skilled jobs. The labor market appears inevitably dual-track, without integration, whether it is urban or rural. The government's attempts to establish formal institutions that provide information is not very effective since rural migrants are unfamiliar with them. Migration can both positively and negatively affect rural areas. Nansheng Bai finds that low-cash-income families that migrate can purchase more capital input such as fertilizers and pesticides, resulting in increased grain output after migration. Denise Hare and Shukai Zhao show that labor migration has positive effects on rural household income; a household's migration experiences affect its subsequent decisions concerning labor allocation. Migration opportunities offer higher long-term returns on migrants' skills than can be obtained locally, particularly in towns adjacent to cities. However, migration from the poorest towns has a negative effect on participation in cash-crop activities. According to Delia Davin, the media have noted the negative effects of migration on migrants' destinations. Crime and overcrowding have increased in urban areas. The media report the dangers and abuse faced by migrants. Zhao pinpoints the lack of benefits available to migrants and their families (e.g., no subsidized housing or education) in contrast to what is offered to local residents. Shen Tan argues that migrants are perceived as vulnerable and are exploited by businessmen and local authorities such as the police and regulatory agencies. Ma contends that women migrants are even more vulnerable. They also tend to resort to legal channels to resist exploitation rather than become involved in organized strikes. This book provokes one to raise certain questions about migration. First, how has migration affected urban areas? For instance, we need to examine the effect of female migration on the domestic and other service sectors in large cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Guangzhou so that we might better understand the changing patterns of social stratification in China. Second, the distances covered during inter-provincial migration and the duration of stay at each destination should be clarified. The patterns and characteristics of migration could vary from region to region in as large a country as China. Short-distance inter-provincial or intra-provincial migration is more likely to lead to greater contributions to...

Ethnic stratification in Northwest China: Occupational differences between Han Chinese and national minorities in Xinjiang, 1982–1990

The debate on market reforms and social stratification in China has paid very little attention to China's ethnic minorities. We explored rising occupational stratification by ethnicity in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Analyses of census data from 1982 and 1990 pointed to educational disadvantages faced by ethinic minorities as the most plausible explanation for the change. Multivariate analysis revealed a significant increase in the effect of education on high-status occupational attainment but no change in the effect of ethnicity. Net of education, ethnic differences in high-status occupational attainment were negligible. In contrast, large ethnic differences in manufacturing and agricultural occupations persisted after education and geography were statistically controlled.

The Household Responsibility System in China's Agricultural Reform: A Theoretical and Empirical Study

Previous articleNext article No AccessThe Household Responsibility System in China's Agricultural Reform: A Theoretical and Empirical StudyJustin Yifu LinJustin Yifu Lin Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Economic Development and Cultural Change Volume 36, Number S3Apr., 1988Supplement: Why Does Overcrowded, Resource-Poor East Asia Succeed: Lessons for the LDCs? Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/edcc.36.s3.1566543 Views: 137Total views on this site Citations: 152Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright 1988 The University of ChicagoPDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Jing Li, Tsun Se Cheong, Wenyang Huang, Wai Yan Shum Examining the Regional Disparity of Agricultural Development: A Distribution Dynamics Approach, Sustainability 14, no.1919 (Oct 2022): 12779.https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912779Mihai Varga Getting the “basics”? 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The Politics of Hsia-hsiang Youth

This paper sets out to examine various aspects of the contemporary Chinese social system and their political implications by studying the social and political attitudes of a subgroup of Chinese society. The general area of interest is social stratification in China: the bases of social differentiation in the new society and how these are perceived by its citizens; the extent to which changes in the structure of society have been accompanied by changes in social attitudes; the extent to which ideological campaigns to change attitudes have been successful; the limitations placed by the stratified nature of society in its transitional stage of socialism on the effectiveness of ideological and political education.